        
        
                            DEVELOPING METACOGNITION 
                                       by
                         Elaine Blakey and Sheila Spence
        
        
        Abstract:  Studies show that metacognitive strategies can
        increase learning skills and that independent use of these
        metacognitive strategies can be gradually developed in people.
        The school library media center is the ideal place for students
        to learn how to develop metacognitive strategies; that is, they
        can learn how to connect new information to former knowledge,
        deliberately select thinking strategies, and plan, monitor, and
        evaluate these thinking processes. There are six basic strategies
        for developing metacognitive behaviors in students: (1) they must
        consciously identify what they "know" as opposed to "what they  
        don't know"; (2) they must then develop a thinking vocabulary so
        that they can verbally describe their thinking processes; (3)
        they should keep a thinking journal or learning log in which they
        reflect upon their learning processes; (4) they must also learn
        how to assume responsibility for regulating their learning
        activities, including estimating time requirements, organizing
        materials and scheduling the procedures necessary to complete an
        activity (the media center's resources lend themselves quite well
        to this task); (5) they must learn how to review and evaluate
        these strategies as either successful or inappropriate; and  
        (6) they must participate in guided self-evaluation through
        individual conferences and checklists focusing on the thinking
        process.  Metacognitive environments must be established in
        schools if teachers and media specialists are to be able to
        encourage students' development of problem-solving and learning
        skills. 
        
        
             Metacognition is thinking about thinking, knowing "what we
        know" and "what we don't know." Just as an executive's job is
        management of an organization, a thinker's job is management of
        thinking.  The basic metacognitive strategies are:  
        
        1. Connecting new information to former knowledge.  
        
        2. Selecting thinking strategies deliberately.  
        
        3. Planning, monitoring, and evaluating thinking processes.    
             (Dirkes, 1985)  
        
             A thinking person is in charge of her behavior. She
        determines when it is necessary to use metacognitive strategies.
        She selects strategies to define a problem situation and
        researches alternative solutions.  She tailors this search for
        information to constraints of time and energy.  She monitors,
        controls and judges her thinking. She evaluates and decides  
        when a problem is solved to a satisfactory degree or when the
        demands of daily living take a temporary or permanent higher
        priority.  
        
             Studies show that increases in learning have followed direct
        instruction in metacognitive strategies. These results suggest
        that direct teaching of these thinking strategies may be useful,
        and that independent use develops gradually (Scruggs, 1985).  
        
             Learning how to learn, developing a repertoire of thinking
        processes which can be applied to solve problems, is a major goal
        of education.  The school library media center, as the hub of the
        school, is an ideal place to integrate these types of skills into
        subject areas or students' own areas of interest.  When life
        presents situations that cannot be solved by learned responses,
        metacognitive behavior is brought into play.  
        
             Metacognitive skills are needed when habitual responses are
        not successful.  Guidance in recognizing, and practice in
        applying, metacognitive strategies, will help students
        successfully solve problems throughout their lives.  
        
        STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING METACOGNITIVE BEHAVIORS  
        
        1. Identifying "what you know" and "what you don't know."  
        
             At the beginning of a research activity students need to
        make conscious decisions about their knowledge. Initially
        students write "What I already know about..." and "What I want to
        learn about...." As students research the topic, they will
        verify, clarify and expand, or replace with more accurate
        information, each of their initial statements.  
        
        2. Talking about thinking.  
        
             Talking about thinking is important because students need a
        thinking vocabulary. During planning and problem-solving
        situations, teachers should think aloud so that students can
        follow demonstrated thinking processes.  Modeling and discussion
        develop the vocabulary students need for thinking and talking
        about their own thinking.  Labelling thinking processes when
        students use them is also important for student recognition of
        thinking skills.  
        
             Paired problem-solving is another useful strategy. One
        student talks through a problem, describing his thinking
        processes.  His partner listens and asks questions to help
        clarify thinking.  Similarly, in reciprocal teaching (Palinscar,
        Ogle, Jones, Carr, & Ransom, 1986), small groups of students take
        turns playing teacher, asking questions, and clarifying and  
        summarizing the material being studied.  
        
        3. Keeping a thinking journal.  
        
             Another means of developing metacognition is through the use
        of a journal or learning log. This is a diary in which students
        reflect upon their thinking, make note of their awareness of
        ambiguities and inconsistencies, and comment on how they have
        dealt with difficulties.  This journal is a diary of process.  
        
        4. Planning and self-regulation.  
        
             Students must assume increasing responsibility for planning
        and regulating their learning. It is difficult for learners to
        become self-directed when learning is planned and monitored by
        someone else.  Students can be taught to make plans for learning
        activities including estimating time requirements, organizing
        materials, and scheduling procedures necessary to complete an
        activity.  The resource center's flexibility and access to a
        variety of materials allows the student to do just this. 
        Criteria for evaluation must be developed with students so  
        they learn to think and ask questions of themselves as they
        proceed through a learning activity.  
        
        5. Debriefing the thinking process.  
        
             Closure activities focus student discussion on thinking
        processes to develop awareness of strategies that can be applied
        to other learning situations.  A three step method is useful.
        First, the teacher guides students to review the activity,
        gathering data on thinking processes and feelings.  Then, the
        group classifies related ideas, identifying thinking strategies  
        used. Finally, they evaluate their success, discarding
        inappropriate strategies, identifying those valuable for future
        use, and seeking promising alternative approaches.  
        
        6. Self-Evaluation.  
        
             Guided self-evaluation experiences can be introduced through
        individual conferences and checklists focusing on thinking
        processes.  Gradually self-evaluation will be applied more
        independently.  As students recognize that learning activities in
        different disciplines are similar, they will begin to transfer
        learning strategies to new situations.  
        
        ESTABLISHING THE METACOGNITIVE ENVIRONMENT  
        
             A metacognitive environment encourages awareness of
        thinking.  Planning is shared between teachers, school library
        media specialists, and students.  Thinking strategies are
        discussed.  Evaluation is ongoing.  In the creation of a
        metacognitive environment, teachers monitor and apply their
        knowledge, deliberately modeling metacognitive behavior to  
        assist students in becoming aware of their own thinking.  
        
             Metacognitive strategies are already in teachers'
        repertoires.  We must become alert to these strategies, and
        consciously model them for students.  Problem-solving and
        research activities in all subjects provide opportunities for
        developing metacognitive strategies.  Teachers need to  
        focus student attention on how tasks are accomplished. Process
        goals, in addition to content goals, must be established and
        evaluated with students so they discover that understanding and
        transferring thinking processes improves learning.  
        
             In this rapidly changing world, the challenge of teaching is
        to help students develop skills which will not become obsolete.
        Metacognitive strategies are essential for the twenty-first
        century.  They will enable students to successfully cope with new
        situations. Teachers and school library media specialists
        capitalize on their talents as well as access a wealth of
        resources that will create a metacognitive environment which  
        fosters the development of good thinkers who are successful  
        problem-solvers and lifelong learners.  
        
                                  REFERENCES  
        
        Dirkes, M. Ann. (1985, November). "Metacognition: Students in
             charge of their thinking." Roeper Review, 8(2), 96-100. EJ
             329 760.  
        
        Heller, Mary F. (1986, February). "How do you know what you know? 
             Metacognitive modeling in the content areas." Journal of
             Reading, 29,  415-421. EJ 329 408.  
        
        Palinscar, A. S.; Ogle, D. S.; Jones, B. F.; Carr, E. G.; &
             Ransom, K. (1986). Teaching reading as thinking. Alexandria,
             VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 
        
        Scruggs, Thomas E.; Mastropieri, M. A.; Monson, J.; & Jorgenson,
             C. (1985, Fall). "Maximizing what gifted students can learn:
             Recent findings of learning strategy research." Gifted Child
             Quarterly, 29(4), 181-185.  EJ 333 116.  
        
                              ADDITIONAL READINGS  
        
        Biggs, John B. (1987). Student approaches to learning and
             studying.  Hawthorne, Victoria, Australia: Australian
             Council for Educational Research. ED 308 201.  
        
        Dirkes, M. Ann. (1988, December). Self-directed thinking in the  
             curriculum. Roeper Review, 11(2), 92-94. EJ 387 276.  
        
        Marzano, Robert J.; Brandt, Ronald S.; Hughes, Carolyn Sue;
             Jones, Beau Fly; Presseisen, Barbara Z.; Rankin, Stuart C.;
             & Suhor, Charles. (1988). Dimensions of thinking: A
             framework for curriculum and instruction.  
             Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
             Development.  ED 294 222.  
        
        "Thinkers and readers (Secondary perspectives). (1990, March).
             Journal of Reading, 33(6)," 460-62. EJ 405 093. 
