Date: Sat, 29 May 93 05:03:43 From: Space Digest maintainer Reply-To: Space-request@isu.isunet.edu Subject: Space Digest V16 #647 To: Space Digest Readers Precedence: bulk Space Digest Sat, 29 May 93 Volume 16 : Issue 647 Today's Topics: About Grissoms Mercury Capsule. (3 msgs) Al Gore: Whats he doing with NASA? August Meteor Shower May Threaten Earth Satellites Comet Shoemaker-Levy, Possible Collision With Jupiter in 1994 (3 msgs) Galileo Update - 05/28/93 Liberal President murders spaceflight? Magellan Update - 05/28/93 Reasons for a moonbase. Seeding Mars with "Mars box" life Space Calendar - 05/28/93 Tom Wolfe's THE RIGHT STUFF - Truth or Fiction? Voyager Discovers the First Direct Evidence of the Heliopause (3 msgs) Voyager Heliopause GIF Why a far side Science station. Why is everyone picking on Carl Sagan? Welcome to the Space Digest!! Please send your messages to "space@isu.isunet.edu", and (un)subscription requests of the form "Subscribe Space " to one of these addresses: listserv@uga (BITNET), rice::boyle (SPAN/NSInet), utadnx::utspan::rice::boyle (THENET), or space-REQUEST@isu.isunet.edu (Internet). ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Date: 28 May 1993 22:07:26 GMT From: Claudio Egalon Subject: About Grissoms Mercury Capsule. Newsgroups: sci.space Sometime ago I read somewhere (I think it was in Ad Astra) that there was a guy that had proposed to recover the capsule, the article also cautioned that EVEN if we recover the capsule, we could not determine whether the hatch had blown by itself or not. ------------------------------ Date: 29 May 1993 00:25:12 GMT From: "Kevin W. Plaxco" Subject: About Grissoms Mercury Capsule. Newsgroups: sci.space In article <1u5t5h$daq@access.digex.net> prb@access.digex.net (Pat) writes: >Is it possible to recover his capsule now with modern >sallvage techniques It's been done. >It'd sure make an interesting artifact for a maritime museum. It's sitting in legal limbo in a Florida warehouse. -Kevin ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 29 May 1993 03:05:42 GMT From: Dave Michelson Subject: About Grissoms Mercury Capsule. Newsgroups: sci.space In article <1u6ah8INNcm1@gap.caltech.edu> kwp@wag.caltech.edu (Kevin W. Plaxco) writes: > >>Is it possible to recover his capsule now with modern >>salvage techniques > >It's been done. It's sitting in legal limbo in a Florida warehouse. !! When did this happen? -- Dave Michelson -- davem@ee.ubc.ca -- University of British Columbia ------------------------------ Date: Fri, 28 May 1993 22:14:08 GMT From: Jason LaBranch Subject: Al Gore: Whats he doing with NASA? Newsgroups: sci.space There is all this talk about Carter. What I want to know is what is Al Gore up to, being the CEO of NASA and all. Does the spaced-out-community have any comments? Does he have any significant visions of the future of space? Is he doing anything about it or is the main focus now on the economy and helth care reform? -- Jason LaBranch | To find your way, Look within! labranch@netcom.com | -- Road Atlas ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 93 19:40:12 GMT From: Mark Borchers Subject: August Meteor Shower May Threaten Earth Satellites Newsgroups: sci.space In article <792@alden.UUCP> sgr@alden.UUCP (Stan Ryckman) writes: >> >>2. The observed activity of a meteor shower is measured in terms of >>'Zenithal Hourly Rate' (ZHR). The normal peak ZHR of the Perseids is >>around 100. The Leonid storm in November 1966 had a ZHR of 100,000 >>for a period of 2040 minutes. > ^^^^^^^^^^^^ >Uh, that's 34 days. How long was it _really?_ > Duh, that's 34 hours. Your calculator needs a new battery. -- Mark Borchers, an independent voice from: Boeing Commercial Airplanes M/S 9R-49 PO BOX 3707 Renton Division Seattle, WA 91824 Software Engineering (206) 393-9527 mob3785@galileo.rtn.ca.boeing.com ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 1993 22:38:35 GMT From: "Doug S. Caprette" Subject: Comet Shoemaker-Levy, Possible Collision With Jupiter in 1994 Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary In article <25MAY199322260259@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov> baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov (Ron Baalke) writes: > COMET SHOEMAKER-LEVY (1993e) >... >The current computations indicate that the comet made a close flyby >of Jupiter at only 0.0008 AU on July 8, 1992 (this is within Jupiter's >Roche limit), and will make an even closer flyby of Jupiter on July 25, 1994. > > IAU Circular 5801 further discusses the orbital trajectory of the comet, >and indicates that it is possible that half of the pieces of the comet may >collide with Jupiter over a three day peroid in July 1994. The surviving >pieces may remain as satellites to Jupiter or be thrown closer to the sun on >short-period heliocentric orbits. Has anyone considered if any of the fragments might collide with any of the Gallilean, or other moons? Sure, it's a long shot, but it would be real exciting too! -- dsc@gemini.gsfc.nasa.gov | Regards, | Hughes STX | Code 926.9 GSFC | | Doug Caprette | Lanham, Maryland | Greenbelt, MD 20771 | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- "If brains were gasoline some people wouldn't have enough to drive a moped once around a cheerio." -- Tom Megessy ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 1993 23:14 UT From: Ron Baalke Subject: Comet Shoemaker-Levy, Possible Collision With Jupiter in 1994 Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro In article <1993May28.195257.24472@cs.ucf.edu>, clarke@acme.ucf.edu (Thomas Clarke) writes... >When in 1994 will the comet collide with Jupiter. >I have to arrange my vacation schedule! >I guess its too early to tell if it will be visible >from North America. The date for the collision is tentatively set for July 1994. You shouldn't plan your vacation to this just yet. The collision is not a certainty, and as more observations are collected on the comet's positions, then the orbit can be more accurately determined. ___ _____ ___ /_ /| /____/ \ /_ /| Ron Baalke | baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov | | | | __ \ /| | | | Jet Propulsion Lab | ___| | | | |__) |/ | | |__ M/S 525-3684 Telos | Never laugh at anyone's /___| | | | ___/ | |/__ /| Pasadena, CA 91109 | dreams. |_____|/ |_|/ |_____|/ | ------------------------------ Date: Fri, 28 May 1993 22:18:35 GMT From: Paul Gilmartin Subject: Comet Shoemaker-Levy, Possible Collision With Jupiter in 1994 Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary apryan@vax1.tcd.ie wrote: : > IAU Circular 5801 further discusses the orbital trajectory of the comet, : > and indicates that it is possible that half of the pieces of the comet may : > collide with Jupiter over a three day peroid in July 1994. The surviving : > pieces may remain as satellites to Jupiter or be thrown closer to the sun on : > short-period heliocentric orbits. : Is there likely to be any visible effect on Jupiter? (My gues : is "no" - not even HST will see anything, nucleii prob less than : mile across=tiny compared to Jupiter). Will P/S-L approach Jupiter's visible or invisible hemisphere? ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 93 21:57:42 GMT From: Ron Baalke Subject: Galileo Update - 05/28/93 Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary Forwarded from Neal Ausman, Galileo Mission Director GALILEO MISSION DIRECTOR STATUS REPORT POST-LAUNCH May 21 - 27, 1993 SPACECRAFT 1. On May 21, a cruise science Memory Readout (MRO) was performed for the Magnetometer (MAG) instrument. Preliminary analysis indicates the data was received properly. 2. On May 24, a NO-OP command was sent to reset the command loss timer to 264 hours, its planned value for this mission phase. 3. On May 24, cruise science Memory Readouts (MROs) were performed for the Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer (EUV), Dust Detector (DDS), and Magnetometer (MAG) instruments. Preliminary analysis indicates the data was received properly. 4. On May 24, an Ultra-Stable Oscillator (USO) test was performed to verify the health status of the USO and to collect gravitational red shift experiment data; long term trend analysis is continuing. 5. On May 24, a scan platform overtravel test was performed to collect Scan Actuator Subassembly (SAS) friction data between 153 degrees and 209.6 degrees. The test was performed nominally and the data was received without incident. Analysis of the data is in progress. 6. On May 27, cruise science Memory Readouts (MROs) were performed for the Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer (EUV) and Magnetometer (MAG) instruments. Preliminary analysis indicates the data was received properly. 7. On May 27, a routine sun vector update was performed. This sun vector is valid through August 14, 1993. 8. On May 27, an Energetic Particle Detector (EPD) motor maintenance exercise was performed which stepped the motor through its eight operating positions and then returned to the normal position (Sector 4). The motor maintenance exercise was successfully verified by Memory Readout (MRO). 9. On May 27, a periodic RPM (Retro-Propulsion Module) 10-Newton thruster flushing maintenance activity was performed; all 12 thrusters were flushed during the activity. Thruster performance throughout the activity was normal. 10. The AC/DC bus imbalance measurements have not exhibited significant change (greater than 25 DN) throughout this period. The AC measurement reads 18 DN (4.1 volts). The DC measurement reads 151 DN (17.8 volts). These measurements are consistent with the model developed by the AC/DC special anomaly team. 11. The Spacecraft status as of May 27, 1993, is as follows: a) System Power Margin - 70 watts b) Spin Configuration - Dual-Spin c) Spin Rate/Sensor - 3.15rpm/Star Scanner d) Spacecraft Attitude is approximately 26 degrees off-sun (lagging) and 1 degree off-earth (leading) e) Downlink telemetry rate/antenna- 40bps(coded)/LGA-1 f) General Thermal Control - all temperatures within acceptable range g) RPM Tank Pressures - all within acceptable range h) Orbiter Science- Instruments powered on are the PWS, EUV, UVS, EPD, MAG, HIC, and DDS i) Probe/RRH - powered off, temperatures within acceptable range j) CMD Loss Timer Setting - 264 hours Time To Initiation - 183 hours UPLINK GENERATION/COMMAND REVIEW AND APPROVAL: 1. The EJ-3 (Earth-Jupiter #3) Cruise Plan was approved by the Project on May 26, 1993. This sequence covers spacecraft activity from August 27, 1993 to September 27, 1993, and includes IDA closest approach and early return of some high priority IDA science observations. GDS (Ground Data Systems): 1. Galileo participated in a MOSO System Test for MGDS V18.1 Command on May 20, using DSS-43 (Canberra 70 meter antenna). The test was only partially successful due to a configuration problem with the GCF (Ground Communications Facility) and the MOSO test string. The configuration problem was resolved and the Ulysses portion of the test was conducted with the station. Due to lack of test time, Galileo used the SIM CPA (Command Processor Assembly) and was able to translate, interact with the MOSO PDB, transmit to the SIM CPA, and radiate a command file. The test also demonstrated the new DTV displays for Command V18.1. The next MOSO System Test is scheduled for May 27, with DSS-42 (Canberra 34 meter antenna). 2. The April System Engineers Monthly Report(SEMR)/Ground System Development Office (GSDO) MMR was conducted Thursday, May 27. A review of current Project and Institutional (DSN and MOSO) system status was conducted. On-going cruise development plus the GSDO Phase 1 and 2 delivery schedules, past months accomplishments and potential problem areas were discussed. No significant schedule changes or problems were reported. TRAJECTORY As of noon Thursday, May 27, 1993, the Galileo Spacecraft trajectory status was as follows: Distance from Earth 266,373,500 km (1.78 AU) Distance from Sun 332,836,400 km (2.23 AU) Heliocentric Speed 81,600 km per hour Distance from Jupiter 483,737,200 km Round Trip Light Time 29 minutes, 44 seconds SPECIAL TOPIC 1. As of May 27, 1993, a total of 70362 real-time commands have been transmitted to Galileo since Launch. Of these, 65251 were initiated in the sequence design process and 5111 initiated in the real-time command process. In the past week, one real time command was transmitted; one was initiated in the sequence design process and none initiated in the real-time command process. Major command activities included a command to reset the command loss timer. ___ _____ ___ /_ /| /____/ \ /_ /| Ron Baalke | baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov | | | | __ \ /| | | | Jet Propulsion Lab | ___| | | | |__) |/ | | |__ M/S 525-3684 Telos | Never laugh at anyone's /___| | | | ___/ | |/__ /| Pasadena, CA 91109 | dreams. |_____|/ |_|/ |_____|/ | ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 93 09:54:00 GMT From: Greg Mccrory Subject: Liberal President murders spaceflight? Newsgroups: sci.space On 27 May 1993 22:36:59 pgf@srl05.cacs.usl.edu (Phil G. Fraering) wrote: > 1. If they're not economically viable, then _WHY_ did they need > to be outlawed (fuel reprocessing)? Because they generate too much hazardous waste, making the risks far outweigh the benefits. > 2. Banning fuel reprocessing while at the same time more stringent > waste disposal requirements are being made is a de-facto limitation > to the point of banning nuclear power........................ What would you have us do, dump it all over the place and contaminate everything for thousands of years?! It's a good thing we had those restrictions or we'd be in the same sorry shape as Russia today! > .................................... And it worked: noone's started > construction on a new plant in years and years. Thank God! /=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-\ | Greg McCrory * Metairie, LA * greg.mccrory@ozonehole.com | \=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-/ * JABBER v1.2 * ---- The Ozone Hole BBS * SKYDIVE New Orleans! * (504)891-3142 * V.32bis/HST ------------------------------ Date: 29 May 1993 00:01 UT From: Ron Baalke Subject: Magellan Update - 05/28/93 Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary Forwarded from Doug Griffith, Magellan Project Manager MAGELLAN STATUS REPORT May 28, 1993 3:00 PM PDT 1. The Magellan Transition Experiment continues to successfully maneuver the spacecraft toward the desired aerobraking corridor. The spacecraft has now made 24 atmospheric drag passes with periapsis below 150 km and all subsystems were reported to be nominal. Periapsis is presently at 143 km. 2. The performance of the spacecraft during the atmospheric drag passes as well as analysis of orbital changes continue to indicate an atmosphere which is 13% above the "Single CO2" model. 3. Currently the solar panel temperature increases by 25 degrees C during the drag pass, reaching a peak of 47.5 degrees. The design limit is about 160 degrees. All other spacecraft temps are well within the expected range. 4. The next OTM (Orbit Trim Maneuver) will be a "single down" scheduled for Saturday at 10:52 AM PDT. Based on the present navigation predictions, this would place the spacecraft at the upper edge of the desired corridor. 5. The periapsis altitude will continue to drift downward over the next week or more, and the first "up" OTM is expected on Sunday, June 6th. Based on orbit changes early next week, the actual OTM will be placed on Saturday or Monday. ___ _____ ___ /_ /| /____/ \ /_ /| Ron Baalke | baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov | | | | __ \ /| | | | Jet Propulsion Lab | ___| | | | |__) |/ | | |__ M/S 525-3684 Telos | Never laugh at anyone's /___| | | | ___/ | |/__ /| Pasadena, CA 91109 | dreams. |_____|/ |_|/ |_____|/ | ------------------------------ Date: Fri, 28 May 1993 22:09:11 +0000 From: Thomas Martin Subject: Reasons for a moonbase. Newsgroups: sci.space In the previous discussions there is one reason for constructing a lunar base that I haven't seen mentioned. Wouldn't learning how to develop a working PLANETARY environment be easier on the moon if we are planning to build one on Mars in a few years. I mean, many of the problems would be the same. Such as the following: Building/Living Environment Moon Mars ====== ====== Atmosphere None Extremely low pressure Surface Rocky/Dusty Rocky/Dusty Geological activity Minimal Some ? Weather None Some ? It seams to me that we could accomplish many of the objective of the space station and the future trip to mars with a bas on the moon. Plus, correct me if I'm wrong, but on the moon, if you are mining materials for oxygen/construction aren't you creating more living space? _____________________________________________ / \ / Lunar Surface Base \ --------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | | | | | | | ---------------- ---------------- | Created Elbow Room | ------------------------------------- Simplistic yes, but realistic? ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 93 14:11:57 GMT From: Jay Thomas Subject: Seeding Mars with "Mars box" life Newsgroups: sci.space In article , taob@r-node.hub.org (Brian Tao) wrote: > > In article <4488@uswnvg.uswnvg.com>, Dan Williams writes... > > > > But any experiments on Mars will always have the possibility to > > contaminate the Mars biosphere. Since Viking at least, there is the > > chance we have already seeded the planet despite our efforts not to. > > There's also an outside chance that good old Mother Earth will be > contaminated by Martian life forms (if any exist)... > -- Let's get back to the original question. Does anyone have any info on the Mars Box? ------------------------------ Date: Fri, 28 May 1993 22:58:14 GMT From: Jeff Bulf Subject: Space Calendar - 05/28/93 Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary,sci.space.shuttle Nice list! Thank-you. An offered contribution... Since this list is clearly not limited to JPL misssions, and since I notice the anniversary of Mariner 10's flyby of Venus (a worthy commemoration!), should we add the Dec '93 15th anniversary of Pioneer Venus' arrival at Venus to the list? Seems worthy enough in view of the orbiter's longevity (It was "still ticking" when Magellan arrived 13 years later) and the multiprobe's pioneering (so to speak) cross-section of the atmosphere. -- ___ __| __ \ | | | dr memory | | / jbulf@kpc.com | ___ \ | | | ____| ______/ ------------------------------ Date: Fri, 28 May 1993 22:40:52 GMT From: Dave Michelson Subject: Tom Wolfe's THE RIGHT STUFF - Truth or Fiction? Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.space.shuttle,rec.arts.books In article <1u5mgaINNgeo@nsat.ipp-garching.mpg.de> bds@uts.ipp-garching.mpg.de (Bruce d. Scott) writes: > >|> [...] If memory serves rightly, he flew a Mercury for 6 orbits. > >Who? Grissom's flight, like Shepherd's (sp), was sub-orbital. Glenn, >with 3 orbits, was the first US astronaut to orbit in Feb 1962. Robert was talking about Wally Schirra not Gus Grissom. He was rather clear on that point even if he did misspell Schirras's name :-( -- Dave Michelson -- davem@ee.ubc.ca -- University of British Columbia ------------------------------ Date: 28 MAY 93 17:07:32 From: "Dana A. Bunner" Subject: Voyager Discovers the First Direct Evidence of the Heliopause Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary In article <26MAY199316020920@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov>, baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov (Ron Baalke) writes... > "This discovery is an exciting indication that still more >discoveries and surprises lie ahead for the Voyagers as they >continue their journey to the outer reaches of our solar system," Just wondering, any chance of the Voyagers or Pioneers escaping the solar system? Dana ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 1993 22:56 UT From: Ron Baalke Subject: Voyager Discovers the First Direct Evidence of the Heliopause Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary In article <1u3vv8$2d4@spock.dis.cccd.edu>, markb@cccd.edu writes... >I'm confused. I though one of the Pioneer probes had already discovered >the heliopause a few years ago. > No spacecraft has reached the heliopause yet. You may have seen something about Pioneer 10 passing the 50 AU mark. Pioneer 10 is currently the farthest one away from the Sun, but will eventually be overtaken by both Voyager spacecraft. I think Pioneer 11 has already been passed by Voyager. ___ _____ ___ /_ /| /____/ \ /_ /| Ron Baalke | baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov | | | | __ \ /| | | | Jet Propulsion Lab | ___| | | | |__) |/ | | |__ M/S 525-3684 Telos | Never laugh at anyone's /___| | | | ___/ | |/__ /| Pasadena, CA 91109 | dreams. |_____|/ |_|/ |_____|/ | ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 1993 23:00 UT From: Ron Baalke Subject: Voyager Discovers the First Direct Evidence of the Heliopause Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary In article <1993May28.221004.18351@macc.wisc.edu>, bunner@vms.macc.wisc.edu (Dana A. Bunner) writes... >Just wondering, any chance of the Voyagers or Pioneers escaping the solar >system? All four spacecraft have large enough escape velocities to leave the solar system - they aren't coming back. If you define the edge of the solar system as being the orbit of Pluto, then they've already left the solar system. If you define the edge as being the heliopause, then they haven't left the solar system, but they will eventually. ___ _____ ___ /_ /| /____/ \ /_ /| Ron Baalke | baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov | | | | __ \ /| | | | Jet Propulsion Lab | ___| | | | |__) |/ | | |__ M/S 525-3684 Telos | Never laugh at anyone's /___| | | | ___/ | |/__ /| Pasadena, CA 91109 | dreams. |_____|/ |_|/ |_____|/ | ------------------------------ Date: 28 May 1993 22:48 UT From: Ron Baalke Subject: Voyager Heliopause GIF Newsgroups: sci.space,sci.astro,alt.sci.planetary ============================ VOYAGER HELIOPAUSE DIAGRAM May 28, 1993 ============================ A GIF image of the Voyager heliopause diagram is now available at the JPL Info public access site. Note that the image is in GIF89a format, so make sure your display software supports this format (as opposed to the older GIF87a format). The image is available by dialup modem at +1 (818) 354-1333, up to 9600 bps, parameters N-8-1, or by using anonymous ftp to: ftp: pubinfo.jpl.nasa.gov (128.149.6.2) user: anonymous cd: news (will be moved to the images directory in 30 days) files: vgrhelio.gif ___ _____ ___ /_ /| /____/ \ /_ /| Ron Baalke | baalke@kelvin.jpl.nasa.gov | | | | __ \ /| | | | Jet Propulsion Lab | ___| | | | |__) |/ | | |__ M/S 525-3684 Telos | Never laugh at anyone's /___| | | | ___/ | |/__ /| Pasadena, CA 91109 | dreams. |_____|/ |_|/ |_____|/ | ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 29 May 1993 00:52:03 GMT From: Mike Butts Subject: Why a far side Science station. Newsgroups: sci.space In article <1u5i3g$49e@access.digex.net>, prb@access.digex.net (Pat) writes: |> |> And if you have to go to the far side for a radio platform, you |> might as well stick a scope or two there. |> |> Is the earth uniformly radio noisy? |> |> I can see the US and Europe being real loud, But over Big chunks of asia |> and the oceans, it should be quiter, or does the variation |> not matter enough? |> |> pat Between NA, Europe and East Asia, there's a lot of broadcast and mobile radio intensity neatly spaced every 120 degrees of longitude. Besides, some of the strongest radio sources on Earth are military radars. Mid-Asia and the oceans probably have plenty of those. -- Mike Butts mbutts@qcktrn.com Research Engineering Mgr. 503-685-1302 Quickturn Systems, Inc., 8005 SW Boeckman Road, Wilsonville, Oregon 97070 My opinions are my own, and aren't necessarily shared by Quickturn Systems. ------------------------------ Date: Sat, 29 May 93 00:49:07 GMT From: William Mills Subject: Why is everyone picking on Carl Sagan? Newsgroups: sci.space >> The story I heard is that after his defense, the astronomers were shaking >> their heads, muttering "Well, at least he knows biology" and the >> biologists were shaking their heads, saying "Well, at least he knows >> astronomy". :-) > > Can you provide the source of this story? I see no reference >to "biology" in his dissertation or degree. Or is this merely >hearsay, or a story someone made up completely? I suspect the latter. When he gave his "Is there intelligent life on Earth Speech" here last month, he was introduced as having been an assistant professor of genetics at Stanford in 1962. Unfortunately, no one asked him how he went from a PhD in astronomy to a faculty position in genetics. ------------------------------ End of Space Digest Volume 16 : Issue 647 ------------------------------